Rhinoceros Giants: A Fresh Look at the Largest Land Mammal Ever

The cover of Rhinoceros Giants, with brilliant artwork by Carl Buell. (Source)

The ungulates are an exceptionally diverse group of mammals, with members having conquered a wide range of niches and even returning to the sea. One of the most interesting representatives of this clade was the impressive fossil perissodactyl Paraceratherium, the focus of a book recently published by Dr. Donald Prothero. Paraceratherium holds the title of the largest terrestrial mammal ever, having stood twenty-two feet tall at the shoulder and outweighing the largest modern elephant by twice its bulk. This animal possessed a skull which could grow to six feet in length and exhibited a pair of conical tusks. Prothero details an intriguing new interpretation of the skull's anatomical features which suggest that this rhinocerotoid would have possessed a form of trunk or proboscis and relatively large ears: striking morphology illustrated in the vibrant cover of this book. Rhinoceros Giants provides an exciting narrative on both the discovery and evolutionary history of Paraceratherium, shedding much light on the diverse past of the rhinoceros. I feel that a book of the nature as this one has been well-warranted for quite some time now. Prothero helps to clear up controversy over the proper name for these behemoths, and provides a better understanding of the ecology and potential life behavior of the indricotheres in detail not matched by the documentaries which helped Paraceratherium gain its fame. Rhinoceros Giants gives the unprecedented textual attention that this remarkable fossil mammal deserves.

Fossil Find May Conclude Controversy Over Hippo Origins

Two pygmy hippos (Choeropsis liberiensis) photographed at the Columbus Zoo by yours truly. The evolutionary origin of such mammals
 has been long unknown, although a recent study in Nature Communications proposes an answer.

A new paper published in the journal Nature Communications has shed crucial light on the ancestry of Africa’s sub-Saharan semiaquatic giant, the hippopotamus. The origins of these animals have long been shrouded in ambiguity but, according to the recent study, can now be definitively placed with the fossil ungulate family Anthracotheriidae. First found in coal deposits, the anthracotheres were aquatic browsers dating back to the late Eocene in Asia and North America.¹ Anthracotheres were among the first animals to colonize Africa, although their range was quite diverse throughout the Oligocene and Miocene epochs.¹ Morphological features such as the flaring snout, wide heavy feet, hippo-like lower jaw, cetacean-like premolars, and prominent tusks of anthracotheres like Elomeryx and Merycopotamus have been cited in support of a link with Hippopotamidae and Whippomorpha (the clade uniting whales and hippos) as a whole.^1,2 The swamp-dwelling tendency of anthracotheres indicated by the presence of their fossil remains in remnant coal seams likely hints at what stimulated differences in morphology and specilization between the otherwise closely related whales and hippos. Stem-whales most probably evolved in coastal environments promoting a carnivorous diet whereas the anthracotherian hippo-progenitors inhabited habitats in which they were restricted to feeding on aquatic plants. As some extant ungulates like pigs occasionally exploit a carnivorous diet, it is not too difficult to imagine stem-whales adopting this trait under restrictive ecological pressures. While fossil stem-cetaceans are numerous and well documented, the ancestry of the 'river horse' has been quite the enigma with ghost lineages remaining between the known anthracothere lineages and the oldest fossil hippopotamus. However, the fossil material described in the Nature Communications publication may help to bridge this paleozoological gap.

New Fossils Reveal The Mother Continent for South American Monkeys

Illustration of Perupithecus ucayaliensis by Jorge González

Arguably one of the best nicknames for the continent Africa is that of 'The Mother Continent', a name owing to the fact that our own Mitochondrial Eve can be traced to this location. However, Homo sapiens was not the only primate species to derive out of Africa. A paper recently published in the journal Nature has revealed new fossil material which sheds light on the origins of South America’s iconic monkey species. In 2010, a team of paleontologists led by Los Angeles County Natural History Museum curator Dr. Ken Campbell uncovered the teeth of three novel extinct primates in the east Peruvian Amazon. The first specimen took two years to identify as a result of its anatomy being distinct from that of modern day South American monkeys, the platyrrhines. The date of this species was traced to the Eocene epoch approximately 36 million years ago, making it ten million years older than any other fossil platyrrhine known. As a result, the newly named Perupithecus ucayaliensis is considered by scientists as a significant piece of the puzzle that is the evolutionary history of South American monkeys.

A New Year and New Zoological Musings

The Etendeka round-eared sengi, a new species of elephant shrew which posed a surprise to mammalogists in 2014. (Source)

With the occurrence of this New Year's Day, yet another year of my writing on this blog has transpired. I hope to deliver fresh material throughout this coming year, with an increased focus on non-cryptozoological topics. I feel that time constraints and my own personal favoritism for the study of unverified animal species have caused me to neglect other zoological matters and even miss opportunities to write on recent discoveries. Also, I have since come to a significant turning point of sorts in regard to my views on this controversial field and its more popular mystery animal elements.

New Findings Suggest Odd-Toed Ungulates Originated On Continental "Noah's Ark"

Illustration of the compelling Cambaytherium thewissi by Elaine Kasmer.

As reported on the Science Daily website, John Hopkins University researchers excavating fossils at the edge of a coal mine in India have recently made a discovery which brings revelations on the origins of odd-toed ungulates. Although past research has traced the presence of these animals back to the early Eocene epoch fifty-six million years ago, details on their earlier evolution is shrouded in mystery. The odd-toed ungulates, classified in the order Perissodactyla, include modern day horses and rhinos and are distinguished from other orders due to their uneven number of toes and unique digestive system. Following the proposition of perissodactyls having their origins in Western India, the John Hopkins University research team took to Eocene sediments in this region and unearthed several remains of the little-known ungulate Cambaytherium thewissi. According to these researchers, the teeth, number of sacral vertebrae, and hand and feet bones of Cambaytherium suggest that it is the species most like a common ancestor to all members of Perissodactyla yet discovered. Apart from filling an evolutionary gap, this finding also supports the notion that a diverse number of early mammal groups might have evolved in India while it was still an isolated island continent. This isolation would allow the groups, which included lemur-like primates and both perissodactyls and the even-toed artiodactyls, to evolve without competition from other Paleocene animals.

Fossil Evidence Sheds Light on Pterosaur Inaccuracies

Excellent painting of two Istiodactylus feeding on the remains of a stegosaur, by paleoartist Mark P. Witton.

(Notice: I had originally written this article for use on the upcoming Fortean Slip podcast which is hosted by Christopher York and Steve Alcorn. I decided to share it here also for the benefit of viewers, as pterosaurs are an interesting group of animals which definitely fit into the realm of bizarre zoology. I have also been meaning to post more articles on paleontological topics, so here is one which I wrote referencing an excellent article by paleoartist Mark Witton.)

Surely if you've seen dinosaur-themed movies such as Jurassic Park then you have heard of pterosaurs. Although these strange creatures are often the sinister "villains" of such media, recent discoveries have revealed that many of the portrayed characteristics are incorrect and have shined light on the true appearance of these bizarre prehistoric reptiles. Pterosaurs were archosaurian reptiles which lived throughout the Mesozoic era, a period of time starting 250 million years ago and ending 65 million years ago. These animals possessed wings with membranes which were supported by a single finger and ranged in size from wingspans of 10 inches to 10 meters, with some species growing as tall as giraffes! However, as mentioned before, there are many inaccuracies regarding these interesting prehistoric animals often spread in movies and other media sources. Rather than being unsuccessful prehistoric equivalents of modern day seabirds, fossil evidence suggests that pterosaurs were a diverse group of reptiles which inhabited a variety of niches. Interestingly, many paleontologists suggest that a group of pterosaurs known as the azhdarchids may have stalked small animals (possibly even juvenile dinosaurs) on the ground like giant, reptilian storks! Pterosaurs were not the scrawny or leathery-skinned monsters depicted in many popular films, but were actually covered in hair-like fuzz which suggests that they were likely warm blooded. These flying reptiles did not struggle to takeoff from the ground, which would put themselves at constant risk to predators such as theropod dinosaurs, but likely launched themselves efficiently using all four legs and their powerful muscles which allowed them to leap off flat ground without assistance of cliffs or wind. Although many inaccuracies regarding these amazing prehistoric animals have been corrected, scientists still have many questions as to what their lifestyles and intermediate ancestors were like. Hopefully, with further research by devoted paleontologists and other scientists, some of the many questions regarding these bizarre Mesozoic reptiles may be answered. To read more about discoveries on the likely appearance and lifestyle of pterosaurs, click this link: Why pterosaurs weren't so scary after all







A likely inaccurate depiction of a leathery and rather demonic-looking Pteranodon from Jurassic Park III.

New Primitive, Knobby-Skulled Pareiasaur Discovered

A new Permian era (266-252 million years ago) reptile has recently been discovered in northern Niger, suggesting that an isolated desert on the supercontinent Pangea had a unique fauna of its own. The newly discovered animal was a pareiasaur, a form of herbivorous reptile common to Permian ecosystems. This animal had a body which was about the size of a cow's, with bony scutes called osteoderms on its back. The feature which especially made this reptile unique were the large, bony knobs which adorned its head; the largest of any known pareiasaur. These large cranial knobs were likely covered in skin, similar to those of giraffes. Due to this strange feature, the new pareiasaur genus was named Bunostegos, meaning "knobby [skull] roof." Even more intriguing is a discovery made through analysis of the specimen, which revealed that the pareiasaur was part of a primitive lineage isolated in the region for millions of years. It appears that several Permian reptiles, amphibians, and plants were isolated in this centrally located desert of the Pangea supercontinent due to its unique hyper-arid conditions which discouraged other species from entering. Due to this isolation in such a harsh climate, the animals living in the region possessed novel adaptations and anatomical features which are evident in their fossilized remains; thus helping us gain a better idea of what some of the truly bizarre fauna during the Permian period was like. To read more about this intriguing discovery, go to this link: Pareiasaur: Bumpy beast was a desert dweller

New Book on the Natural History, Evolution, and Anatomy of Pterosaurs

Thalassodromeus sethi shown consuming a juvenile spinosaur, by paleoart genius Mark Witton.

Paleontologist and remarkable paleoartist Mark Witton has recently announced that his new book Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy has been published. The book regards the evolution, anatomy, functional morphology, and taxonomy of pterosaurs, and contains 200 illustrations throughout 26 chapters according to Witton's website page on this exciting publication. Thankfully for paleontology interested amateurs like me, Witton's new book is meant to be approachable for people who do not have intimate knowledge regarding these intriguingly bizarre flying reptiles. Mark's stunning looking book is apparently the most up to date publication on these animals yet, and it even features new proposals on the hypothetical ancestral species of pterosaurs! As a fan of Mark's beautiful paleoart, I was very excited by his statement that the amount of new illustrations which he had created for this book was partly the reason for the two and a half year wait for its publication. Many of these illustrations apparently depict pterosaurs in never-seen-before situations, and do take an All Yesterdays approach according to Witton. This new publication is also stocked with diagrams and graphics, such as skeletal diagrams and muscle reconstructions.

A diagram depicting the intriguing structure of pterosaur wings, as evidenced by fossils.
(From Mark Witton's book)

Mark has generously shared Chapter 1 and Chapter 17 of the book as sample chapters, which preview how truly remarkable this book is. I have yet to purchase a copy, but I certainly will as soon as possible. I think this book will be definitely worth obtaining, and I have shared a link to where you can purchase the book on Amazon here. To read more about this exciting, new book by great paleoartist and pterosaur specialist Mark Witton, check out this post on his blog: Mark Witton.com Blog: Pterosaurs: Natural History, Evolution, Anatomy: o...

New Specimen Revolutionizes Icthyosaur Paleobiology

A life restoration of Malawania by Bob Nicholls and C. M. Kosemen.

The fossils of a new species of icthyosaur, a fast swimming and likely warm blooded species of dolphin-shaped marine reptile, found in Iraq have changed the view of paleontologists on these peculiar animals. Prior to this discovery, it was generally thought that a series of extinction events during the Jurassic period had caused this group to eventually die out and lessen in diversity. However, the partial skeleton of this new species named Malawania anachronus supports the existence of a previously unknown lineage of Cretaceous ichthyosaurs. An extremely interesting detail of this discovery is that Malawania appears to be a member of an icthyosaur lineage which was thought to have gone extinct during the Jurassic period, making it an ancient example of a 'living fossil'. The typical textbook definition of a 'living fossil' is an organism that has remained essentially unchanged from earlier geologic times and whose close relatives are usually extinct. Thus, the discovery of Malawania as an archaic relict of a lineage of Jurassic icthyosaurs demonstrates that these marine reptiles were likely still diverse during the early Cretaceous, which further adds to the importance of this amazing discovery. To read more about this intriguing fossil discovery, click the link below:
Fossil saved from mule track revolutionizes understanding of ancient dolphin-like marine reptile
Also read this article by paleozoologist Dr. Darren Naish, who was a coauthor on the paper which detailed the discovery of this bizarre reptile. It delves even further into the events which lead up to this discovery and why it is so important:
http://blogs.scientificamerican.com/tetrapod-zoology/2013/05/14/malawania-from-iraq/

Possible Last Common Ancestor of Modern Great Apes Discovered

A species of ancient great ape which lived in Spain was recently unearthed and named Pierolapithecus catalaunicus. Pierolapithecus catalaunicus lived approximately 11.9 million years ago, and scientists have announced that it was possibly the last common ancestor of the modern great ape species (chimpanzees, gorillas, bonobos, orangutans, and humans). A recent examination of this ape's pelvis bone by an anatomy expert now suggests that it had intriguing features which give clues as to the evolution of modern great apes. Please read this article for more information on this exciting discovery:
Fossil of great ape sheds light on evolution

Key Developments in Avian Evolution Revealed by Recent Study

A recent study on archosaur (crocodilians, birds, and dinosaurs) anatomy has shown that theropod dinosaurs gradually evolved longer, heavier, and more muscular arms as their anatomy led towards the development of wings for flight. Interestingly, these theropods also developed a more crouched and bird-like posture along with the stockier arm morphology. These findings certainly lend key anatomical knowledge as to the evolution of birds from nonavian theropod dinosaurs such as the maniraptorans, so I suggest that you read this article for more information on this compelling analysis:

Heavier Dino Arms Led Evolution To Birds

A Review of 'All Yesterdays', A "New Look" For Dinosaurs That I Hope Stays!

 

I have had the pleasure to receive a fantastic book this Christmas, named All Yesterdays: Unique and Speculative Views of Dinosaurs and Other Prehistoric Animals. This book features amazing artwork and excellent novel ideas by John Conway, C.M. Kosemen, and Dr. Darren Naish. With the danger of revealing too much of what is in this wonderful new book, here is a bit of a review.

The cover of All Yesterdays with its beautifully illustrated, tree-climbing ceratopsians

 

What I love about this book is that it combines beautiful "paleoart" with bizarre, yet totally possible ideas about the appearance and lifestyle of dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals (such as plesiosaurs and a giant, pterosaur-eating centipede). The authors reconstruct dinosaurs with seemingly odd behaviors, yet fully support these hypothetical portrayals with evidence from the modern natural world. They do the same with the appearance and integument of some of their dinosaurs, and point out that modern animals aren't always sleek and often have body parts hidden by layers of fatty skin or integument. Accompanying text helps us understand why the authors reconstructed the dinosaur (or other prehistoric animal) on that page in the way they did, and a skeletal drawing is also present.

As a warm-blooded predator, a Tyrannosaurus would actually spend a large amount of time sleeping while digesting a meal.

A Majungasaurus with a stunning display, spreading its arms out "in a manner completely unlike that of other large predatory dinosaurs".
 

One of my favorite aspects of the paleoart in this book is that the authors put plenty of interesting integument on their dinosaurs. These included Therizinosaurus that have massive bodies hidden by feathers, Triceratops with large spike-like bristles, and Heterodontosaurus which are covered in bristly "hairs" and porcupine-like quills! Interestingly, we are learning that such speculation is quite plausible. Not only does fossil evidence support the idea of theropods with body integument such as feathers, but we are now learning that many small ornithiscians had fuzzy bristles as well.  

The authors of 'All Yesterdays' don't reconstruct their Leaellynasaura as naked, lizard-like animals.....

But rather, they reconstruct Leaellynasaura as being perfectly adapted to life in a polar climate with a fluffy integument. Brilliant!

Therizinosaurus are portrayed in this book as elephant-sized mounds of feathers with gigantic claws.

To help enforce their claim that it is perfectly reasonable to reconstruct dinosaurs with bizarre behaviors or anatomy, the authors also dedicated a chapter to reconstructing modern animals as a future paleontologist might if they only had fossilized remains to go off of. Some of the results were a terrifying hairless spider monkey, a cow with skin so tight that its bones show, and birds with membranes instead of feathers on their wings. This chapter truly impacted my way of thinking, and surely justified the paleoart styles of these artists. It also supports the idea that many dinosaurs may have been much thicker-bodied with muscle, fat, and/or bountiful integument. This book has the ability to thrill the minds of readers, and to make them realize that dinosaurs were probably a lot more bizarre-looking and acting than we often see them depicted as! However, it also shows that dinosaurs weren't strange and alien monsters, but were regular animals which probably behaved and looked like many species of the modern day.

A reconstruction of a modern cat that is "shrink-wrapped" and represents how modern paleontologists often wrongly depict dinosaurs as very slim, with every bone feature visible through the skin.

All Yesterdays is a truly amazing book, which I would fervently recommend to anyone interested in the possible appearance and lifestyles of dinosaurs. The art contained in the book is not only beautiful, but rejuvenating for the animals depicted. Hopefully, All Yesterdays will help end the era of depicting unrealistically leathery-skinned and slim dinosaurs and will bring forth reconstructions of the reptiles with the fuzzy integument and fatty skin that real animals have. In my mind, All Yesterdays depicts dinosaurs more accurately than other resources which I have seen in that it recognizes the bizarre habits and appearances that many modern animals have and brings them to life in dinosaurs. If only Jurassic Park had depicted its Triceratops with huge protective spines, although the famed Tyrannosaurus rex would be boring as it would be sleeping throughout the movie after consuming the goat and lawyer.

A spiny Triceratops from All Yesterdays. A  specimen of this ceratopsian at the Houston Museum of Natural Science has preserved skin impressions which suggest that these animals actually did possess such bristles. 

 I seriously can't say enough about All Yesterdays, and I emphatically hope that you buy it and read this fabulous book. If you have an open mind and even a slim interest in dinosaurs, this book will change your mind about the way they looked and acted for the better.